But the race of men at that time was much hardier on the land, as was fitting inasmuch as the hard earth had made it; built up within it was with bones larger and more solid, fitted with strong sinews throughout the flesh, not such as easily to be mastered by heat or cold or strange food or any ailment of the body. Though many luster's of the sun rolling through the sky they passed their lives after the curved plough was there, none knew how to work the fields with iron, to dig new shoots into the ground, to prune off old branches from the tall trees with a sickle. What sun and rain had given, what the earth had produced of her own accord, that was a gift enough to content their minds. Amidst the acorn-laden oaks they refreshed themselves for the most part; and the arbute-berries which in winter time you now see ripen with crimson colour, then the earth bore in abundance and even larger than now. Many another kind of food besides the flowering infancy of the world then produced, hard but amply sufficient for poor mortals. But to quench thirst, rivers and springs invited them, as now the rushing of water down from the great mountains calls loud and far to the thirsting hordes of beast. Next as they roamed abroad they dwelt in familiar woodland precincts of the Nymphs, whence they knew that some running rivulet issued rippling over the wet rocks, rippling over the rocks in abundant flow and dripping upon the green moss, with plenty left to splash and bubble over the level plain. Not yet did they know how to work things with fire, nor to use skins and to clothe themselves in the stripping of beast; but they dwelt in the woods and the forests and mountain caves, and hid their rough bodies in the underwoods when they had to escape the beating of winds and rain. They could not look to the common good, they knew not how to govern their intercourse by custom and law. Whatever price fortune gave to each, that he carried off, every man taught to live and be strong for himself at his own will. And Venus joined the bodies of lovers in the woods; for either the woman was attracted by some mutual desire, or caught by man’s violent force and vehement lust, or by a bribe-acorns and arbute-berries or choice pears. And by the aid of their wonderful powers of hand and foot, they would hunt the woodland tribes of beast with volleys of stones and ponderous clubs, overpowering many, shunning but a few in their lairs; and when night overtook them, like so many bristly hogs they just cast them savage bodies naked upon the ground, rolling themselves in leaves and boughs. Nor did they go seeking the day and the sun with great outery over the countryside, wandering panic-stricken in the sun with rosy torch spread his light over the heavens. For since they had been accustomed from childhood always to see darkness and light return in alternate sequence, it was impossible that they should ever feel wonder, or fear lest everlasting night should possess the world, the sun’s light being withdrawn for ever. Rather what trouble them was that the hordes of beast often made their rest dangerous to them: and driven from their shelter, they would flee to the rocks and caves when a foaming boar appeared or a mighty lion, and at dead of night in terror would yield their leaf-strewn beds to the savage guests...
Next, when they had got them huts and skins, and fire, and woman mated with man was appropriated to one, [and the laws of wedlock] became known, and they saw offspring born to them, then the human race began to grow soft. For the fire saw to it that their shivering bodies were less able to endure cold under the canopy of heaven, and Venus sapped their strength, and children easily broke their parents’ proud spirit by coaxing. Then also neighbor began eagerly to join friendship amongst themselves to do no hurt and suffer no violence, and asked protection for their children and womankind, signifying by voice and gesture with stammering tongue that it was right for all to pity the weak. Nevertheless concord could not altogether be produced, but a good part, nay the most kept the covenant unblemished, or else the race of mankind would have been even then wholly destroyed, nor would birth and begetting have been able to prolong their posterity.
But the various sounds of the tongue nature drove them to utter, and convenience pressed out of them names for things, not far otherwise than very speechlessness is seen to drive children to the use of gesture, when it makes them point with the finger at things that are before them....
That you may not perhaps be quietly asking yourself the question, it was lighting that first brought fire down to the earth for mortals.. and from this all blazing flames have been spread abroad. For we can see many things catch fire touched by the flames from on high, when the stroke from heaven has given them its heat. And yet also when a branching tree struck by the winds, swaying and tossed about, leans on the branches of a tree, fire is pressed out by the great force of the friction, and at times the burning glare of flame flashes while branches and twigs are rubbed together. Either of these causes may have given fire to mankind.
After that, the sun taught them to cook food and to soften it by heat of flames, since they saw many things soften, vanquished by the blows of the heat of his rays amid the fields.
More and more daily they were shown how to change their former life and living for new ways, by those men of goodwill who were pre-eminent in genius and strong in mind. Kings began to found cities and build a citadel for their own protection and refuge; and they divided cattle and lands and gave them to each according to beauty and strength and genus; for beauty had great power, and strength had importance, in those days. Afterwards wealth was introduced and god was discovered, which easily robbed both the strong and the handsome in body, men for the most part follow the party of the richer. But if one should guide his life by true principals, man’s greatest riches is to live on a little with contented mind; for a little is never lacking. Yet men desire to be famous and powerful, that their fortune might stand fast upon a firm foundation, and that being wealthy they might be able to pass a quiet life: all in vain, since in the struggle to climb to the summit of honor they made their path full of danger; and even down from the summit, nevertheless, envy strikes them oftentimes like a thunderbolt and casts them with scorn into loathly Tartarus; since envy, like the thunderbolt, usually scorches the summits and all those that are elevated above others; so that it is indeed much better to obey in peace, than to desire to hold the world in fee and to rule kingdoms. Leave them then to be weary for nought, and the sweat blood in struggling along the narrow path of ambition; since their wisdom comes from the lips of others, and they pursue things on hearsay rather than from their own feelings. And this was in the beginning, as much as it is now and shall be without end.
Kings therefore were slain; the ancient majesty of thrones and proud scepters lay overthrown in the dust; the illustrious badge of the topmost head, bloodstained beneath the feet of the mob, bewailed its lost honor: for men are eager to tread underfoot what they have once too much feared. So things came to the uttermost dregs of confusion, when each man for himself sought dominion and exaltation. Then there were some who taught them to create magistrates, and established law, that they might be willing to obey statutes. For mankind, tired of living in violence, was fainting from its feuds, and so they were readier of their own will to submit to statutes and strict rules of law.
For because each man in his wrath would make ready to avenge himself more severely than is permitted now by just laws, for this reason men were utterly weary of living in violence. Hence comes fear of punishment that taints the prizes of life; for violence and injury enclose in their net all that do such things, and generally return upon him who began, nor is it easy to pass a quiet and peaceful life for him whose deeds violate the bonds of the common peace. For even if he hide it from gods and men, he must yet be uncertain that it will that it will for ever remain hidden; seeing that often many men speaking in dreams or raving in delirium, are said to have discovered themselves, and to have shown abroad both hidden vices and hidden sins.
Next it is not very difficult to explain in words, what cause has spread the divinity of the gods over great nations and filled the cities with altars, and has made customary magnificence and our great places, from which even now remains implanted in mortal men and awe that raises new shrines to the gods all over the world, and drives them to throng together on festal days. The truth is, that even in those days the generations of men used to see with walking mind, and still more in sleep, gods, conspicuous in beauty and of marvelous bodily stature. To these therefore they attributed sensation, because they appeared to move their limbs and to utter proud speech in keeping with their splendid beauty and vast strength. And they gave them everlasting life, because there was always a succession of visions coming up in which the Sharpe remained the same, and because they thought that certainly beings endowed with such strength could not in any case lightly be overcome by any force. Therefore they thought them to be pre-eminent in happiness, because the fear of death troubled none of them, and at the time because in sleep they saw them perform many marvelous feats and felt no distress there from. Besides they observed how the array of heaven and the various seasons of the year came round in due order, and could not discover by what causes all in the hands of the gods, and to suppose that by their nod all things were done. And they placed the gods’ habitation and abode in the sky, because through the sky the night and the moon are seen to revolve, moon and day and night and the solemn stars of night, heaven’s night-wandering torches, clouds and sun, rain and snow, winds, lightings and hail, rapid roarings an threatening throes of thunder.
Copper and gold and iron were discovered, so also heavy silver and massy lead, when fire upon the great mountains had burnt up huge forests with its heat; whether by some lightning stroke from heaven, or because men waging in war in the forests had brought fire upon their foes and to affright them, or because led by the richness of the soil they wished to clear the fat fields and make the place fit for pasturage, or to destroy the wild beasts and to enrich themselves with spoil. For hunting with pit and fire came up, before fencing about a glade with nets or putting up game with dogs. However that may be, whatever the cause by which flaming heat with appalling din had devoured the forests deep down to the roots and parched up the earth with fire, through the hot veins into some hollow place of the earth would ooze and collect a stream of silver and gold , of copper also and lead: and when afterwards they saw these congealed together and gleaming upon the earth with bright colour, they would pick them up captivated by the sleek smooth grace and would see that they were each molded into a shape like the hollows in which they had left their mark. Then it dawned upon they that these lumps might be melted and run into any shape and form of objects, and might furthermore be beaten out with blows into the sharpest and finest possible point or edge, to make themselves tools, to cut down trees, to rough-hew timber and to plane planks and beams, to bore also and to pierce and perforate. And they would try to make these at first no less of silver and gold than of bronze with it’s tough and strong substance, but in vain, since neither the strength of these yielded and bent nor could they so well bear the hard work. Then bronze was of more worth, and gold was thought little of, and gold has mounted to the chief honor. So rolling time changes the seasons of things. What was of worth comes at length to be held in no honor; next something else comes up and comes forth from contempt, is sought for more day by day, and once discovered thieves in praise and is held in wonderful honor among men.
Now it is easy for you, Memmius, to recognize yourself in what manner the nature of iron was discovered. The ancient weapons were hands, nails, and teeth, and stones and branches also broken from forest trees, flames and fire as soon as they were known. Later was discovered the power of iron and of bronze. The use of bronze was known before iron, because it is more easily worked and there is greater store. With bronze men tiled the soil of the earth, with bronze they stirred up the waves of war, and dealt devastating wounds, and seized cattle and lands; for when some were armed, all that was naked and unarmed readily gave way to them. Then by small degrees the sword of iron gained ground, and the fashion of the bronze sickle became a thing of contempt; then with iron they began to break the soil of the earth, and the struggles of war now become doubtful were made equal.
And it is an earlier practice for one to mount on horseback armed, to guide the horse by the bit and to do doughty deeds with the right hand, than to essay the perils of war in a two-horse car. And to yoke a pair came before yoking twice two to the car, and before the armed men mounted the scythed chariot. Next the Lucanian taught by the Carthaginians to endure the wounds of war, and to confound the great hosts of Mars. Thus gloomy Discord bread one thing after another, to be frightful in battle for the nations of men, and added new terror to warfare day by day...
Garments of patchwork came before garments of woven cloth. Woven cloth comes after iron, because iron is needed for equipping the loom, nor without it can such smoothness be given to the heddles and spindles, shuttles and noisy yarn-beams. And nature made men to work in wool before womankind, for the male sex as a whole if far superior in skill and more clever; until the austere farmers made it a reproach, so that the men agreed to leave it in women’s hands and themselves to share in hard labor and by hard work to harden their bodies and hands.
But the pattern of sowing and the beginning of grafting first came from nature herself the maker of all things, since berries and acorns falling from trees in due time produced swarms of seedlings underneath; and this also gave them the whimsy to insert shoots in branches and to plant new slips in the earth all over the fields. Next one after another they tried ways of cultivating the little plot they loved, and found out that the earth could tame wild fruits by kind treatment and friendly tillage. Day by day they made the forests climb higher up the mountains and yield the place below to their tilth, that they might have meadows, pools and streams, crops and luxuriant vineyards on hill and plain, and that a greygreen belt of olives might run between to make the boundaries stretching forth over hills and dales and plains: even as now you see the whole place mapped out with charming variety, laid out and intersected wit sweet fruit-trees and set about with fertile plantation of trees.
Again, to imitate with the mouth the liquid notes of the birds came long before men could delight their ears by warbling smooth carols in song. And the zephyrs whistling through hollow reeds first taught the countrymen to blow into hollow hemlock-stalks. Next, step by step they learnt the plaintive melodies which the reed-pipe gives forth tapped by the players’ fingertips, - the pipe discovered amid pathless woods and forests, amid the solitary haunts of shepherds and the peace of the open air. These soothed their minds and gave them great delight when they had their fill of food: for that is when song is pleasant. Often therefore stretched in groups on the soft grass hard by a stream of water under the branches of a tall tree they made merry at cheap cost, above all when the weather smiled and the season of the year painted the green herbage with flowers. Then was the time for jest, for gossip, for peasant peals of laughter. For then the rustic muse was in its prime; then they would wreathe head and shoulders with woven garlands of flowers, prompted by joyous playfulness, and the would march out moving their limbs out of time and beating mother earth stiffly with stiff foot: from which mirth would arise and pleasant peals of laughter, because all these things being new and wonderful had great vogue. And when wakeful, this was their consolation for sleep, to sing many a long-drawn note and to turn a tune and to run along the tops of the reedpipes with curved lip; whence even now the watchmen keep up the tradition, and they have learnt how to keep various kinds of rhythm, yet for all that they have not more profit in enjoyment than the woodland people had who were born of the soil. For what is ready to hand, unless we have known something more lovely before, gives pre-eminent delight and seems to hold the field, until something found afterwards to be better is wont to spoil all that and to change our taste for anything ancient.

So men grew tired of acorns, so were deserted that old beds strewn with herbage and leaves piled up. The garment also of wild-beast pelt fell into contempt; which I can imagine must have excited such envy in those days when discovered, that he who first wore one was done to death by treachery, and even then that is was torn to pieces amongst them with much bloodshed and was lost and could not be turned to use. Then therefore pelts, now gold and purple trouble men’s life with cares and weary it with war; in which as I think the greater fault rests upon us. For without the pelts cold tormented the naked sons of earth; but we take no harm to be without a vestment of purple or worked with gold and great figures, so long as there is the poor man’s cloak to protect us. Therefore mankind labors always in vain and to no purpose, consuming their days in empty cares, plainly because they know not the limit of possession, and how far it is ever possible for real pleasure to grow: and this little by little has carried life out into the deep sea, and has stirred up from the bottom the great billows of war.
But those watchful sentinels sun and moon, traveling with their light around the great revolving region of heaven, have taught men well that the seasons of the year come round, and that all is done on a fixed plan and in fixed order.
Already men lived fenced in with strong towers, the earth was divided up and distributed for cultivation, already every sea was covered with sail-flying ships, men had already every sea was under formal treaty, when poets began to commemorate doughty deeds in verse; nor had letters been invented long time before. For this reason our age cannot look back upon what happened before, unless is any respect reasoning shows the way.
Ships and agriculture, fortifications and laws, arms, roads, clothing and all else of this kind, life’s prizes, its luxuries also from first to last, poetry and pictures, the shaping of statues by the artist, all these men progressed gradually step by step were taught by practice and the experiments of the active mind. So by degrees time brings up before us every single thing, and reason lifts it into the precincts of light. For their intellect saw one thing after another grow famous amongst the arts, until they came to their highest point.